Training Methods

Training can be carried out either on-the-job or off-the-job. In the very common on-the-job training approach, the trainee works in the actual work setting, usually under the guidance of an experienced worker, supervisor, or trainer. It is basically “Learning by doing while working”. Training is imparted to employees while they perform their regular jobs.

After a plan is developed for training, employees should be informed of the details. An experienced employee will act as a friend, philosopher and guide.

The new employee follows the orders, carries out instructions and adopts the right technique while doing the job. In this way, he is able to learn the work practically. While doing so, he can ask questions, seek clarifications on various job-related matters and obtain guidance from his senior employees. A timetable should also be prepared with periodic evaluations to inform employees about their progress.

Methods of training that are generally used to impart training are categorized under two heads:- 1. On the Job Training 2. Off the Job Training. These are further sub-categorised into-

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A: On the Job Training Methods:- 1. Job Instruction Training 2. Vestibule Training 3. Training by Experienced Workmen 4. Training by Supervisors 5. Demonstrations and Examples (Learning by Seeing) 6. Simulation 7. Apprenticeship 8. Job Rotation 9. Coaching 10. Special Courses 11. Orientation Training 12. Committee Assignments 13. Understudy and 14. Internship Training.

B: Off the Job Training Methods:- 1. Lecture (Classroom Instruction) 2. Conference Method 3. Seminar or Team Discussion 4. Case Studies (Learning by Doing) 5. Role Playing 6. Programmed Instructions (Teaching by the Machine Method) 7. Laboratory Training 8. Tele-Training 9. Computer-Aided Instruction and Interacting Video and 10. Experimental Exercises.

Training Methods: On the Job Training and Off the Job Training Methods

Training Methods – Top 2 Methods Used to Impart Training to Employees: On the Job Training and Off the Job Training Methods

Methods of training that are generally used to impart training are categorized as:

These are explained in detail:

Method # 1. On the Job Training Method:

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Numerous training methods can be used while the man is engaged in the process of productive work. On-the-job training methods are suitable for all personnel.

Various methods of on-the-job training are as follows:

The most common and formal on-the-job training programme is training for a specific job. Current practice in the job training has been strongly influenced by the war-time training within industry (TWI) which was first designed to improve the job performance through job instruction training. TWI also included training for supervisors to improve job performance.

These are the following methods of training on specific job:

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(a) Experience:

This is the method of on-the-job training. Learning by experience cannot and should not be eliminated as a method of development though as a sole approach, it is wasteful, time-consuming, and inefficient. In some cases this method has proved to be very efficient though it should be followed by other training methods to make it more meaningful.

(b) Coaching:

On-the-job coaching by the superior is an important and potentially effective approach if superior, is properly trained and oriented. The technique involves direct personnel instruction and guidance, usually with extensive demonstration and continuous critical evaluation and correction. The advantage is increased motivation for the trainee and the minimization of the problem of learning transfer from theory to practice. The danger in this method lies in the possible neglect to coaching by superior.

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(c) Understudy:

The understudy method makes the trainee an assistant to the current jobholder. The trainee learns by experience, observations and limitation. If decisions are discussed with the understudy, he can be informed on the policies and theories involved. The advantage of this method is that training is conducted in practical and realistic situation.

However, disadvantages are many. The method takes care of mistakes and deficiencies of existing managerial practice. Moreover, the understudies are frequently neglected by those they assist.

(d) Job Rotation:

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It is another on-the-job training method in which worker is imparted training in a variety of jobs and is shifted from job-to-job for this purpose. This method helps the worker to be versatile in many jobs. This type of training very useful for the organisation as it can utilize the services of various workers on other jobs as well in the time of need in case of absences, leaves, departures or exists. It also gives the workers a sort of flexibility and helps in breaking monotony of work.

(e) Apprenticeship:

A major part of training time is spent on-the-job productive work. Each apprentice is given a programme of assignments according to a pre-determined schedule which provides for efficient training in trade skills. This method is appropriate for training in crafts, trades and technical areas, especially when proficiency in a job is the result of relatively long training or apprenticeship period, e.g., job of a craftsman, a machinist, a printer, a tool maker, a pattern designer, a mechanic, etc.

(f) Job Instruction:

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Training is an on-the-job and the trainee learns how to perform his work while working on his present job. It is a way of learning by doing. The training is imparted by a trainer, supervisor or senior and experienced co-worker the very work situation.

(g) Training Centre Training:

It involves classroom training imparted with the help of equipment and machines identical to those in use at the place of work. Theoretical training is given in the classroom, while practical work is conducted on the production line. It is often used to train clerks, bank tellers, inspectors, machine operator, typists, etc.

(h) Vestibule Training:

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Under this method the trainee is trained under similar conditions of work, in a kind of miniature factory, of workshop or pilot plant. After this training he is exposed to real life situation in the factory. It is often considered as preliminary to the job training. This enables the trainee to overcome nervousness and get the best out of the training. He becomes mentally prepared to handle the job.

(i) Simulation:

It is extension of vestibule training. The trainee works in closely ‘duplicate’ real job condition. This is essential in cases in which actual on the job practice is expensive, might result in serious injury, a costly error or the destruction of valuable material or resource, e.g., in aeronautical industry.

(j) Internship Training:

This training is usefully meant for such person and such jobs where advanced theoretical knowledge is to be backed by practical experience on the job. It is with reference to joint programmes of technical and professional institution and the industry or big business houses that usually employ such technicians and professionals.

The students of engineering colleges are sent for this type of training to the big industries, and the medical student to big hospitals. Similarly, management’s students or students undergoing company secretary course are sent to big and advanced corporate organisations. The aim of such training is to bring about a balance between theory and practical of the knowledge.

Method # 2. Off the Job or Classroom Training Method:

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Training on-the-job is not a part of everyday activity under these methods. Location of this training may be a company, classroom or outside place owned by the organisation, an educational institution or association, which is not a part of the company.

These methods are:

(i) Lectures:

These are formally organised by an instructor on specific topic. This method is useful when philosophy, concepts, attitudes, theories and problem-solving have to be discussed. The lectures can be used for a very group to be trained in a short time. These are essential when technical or special information of a complex nature is to be imparted. The lectures are supplemented with discussion, film show, case studies, role playing, etc. This is also known as implant or in-house training.

(ii) Case Study:

This method helps the trainee to learn how others tracked the problems or situations as and when they arms. In this form of training, a trainee undertakes a case study and learns how decisions were arrived at and taken. Usually, a trainee studies a case which is related to his job. Case studies help in developing decision making skills. Case study method of training is a technique. Cases are discussed in group. Each member is asked to present his analysis.

(iii) Seminar or Team Discussion:

The group learns through discussion of a paper on a selected subject. The paper is written by one or more trainees. Discussion may be on a statement made by the person in charge of the seminar or on a document prepared by an expert. The material to be analysed is distributed in advance in the form of required reading.

(iv) Brainstorming:

This is the method of stimulating trainees to creative thinking. This approach developed by Alex Osborn seeks to reduce inhibiting forces by providing for a maximum of poses and ideas are invited. Quantity rather than quality is the primary objective. Ideas are encouraged and criticism of any idea is discouraged. Chain reaction from idea often develops. Later, these ideas are critically examined. There is no trainer in brainstorming.

(v) Role Playing:

Here trainees act out a given role as they would do in a stage play. Two or more trainees are assuaged roles in a given situation, which is explained to the group. There are no written lines to be said and naturally, no rehearsals. The role players have to quickly respond to the situation that is ever-changing and to react to it is they would in the real one. It is a method of human interaction which involves realistic behaviour in an imaginary or hypothetical situation.

(vi) Self-Study:

This technique is very useful when the trainee is distantly placed or the instruction to be imparted does not need personal interaction. Instruction is imparted through carefully planned materials which are sent in the form of manuals, videotapes or recorded castes, etc. Self-study is the best method for self-development. However, principles of learning are not taken care of in this technique.

(vii) Sensitivity Training:

Sensitivity training is the most controversial laboratory training method. Many of its advocates have an almost religious zeal in their enhancement with the training group experience. Some of its critics match this favour in their attacks on the technique. As a result of criticism and experience, a somewhat revised approach often described as team development training has appeared.

It was first used by National Training. Laboratories at Bethel, USA. The training groups themselves were called ‘T Group’. Since then its use has been extended to other organisations, universities and institutes.

(viii) Programmed Instruction:

In recent years this method has become popular. The subject matter to be learned is presented in a series of carefully planned sequential units. These units are arranged from simple to more complex levels of instruction. The trainee goes through these units by answering questions or filling the blanks. This method is expensive and time-consuming.

Training Methods – On the Job Training and Off the Job Training Methods (With Merits and Demerits)

It is difficult, if not impossible; to say which combination of methods is more useful than the other. The best technique for one situation may not be best for different groups or tasks. Care must be taken in adopting the method to the learner and job.

An effective training technique fulfils these objectives; provides motivation to the trainee to improve job performance, develop a willingness to change, provide for the trainee’s active participation in the learning process, provide a knowledge of results about attempts to improve (i.e., feedback), and permit practice where appropriate.

There are mainly two kinds of training methods, i.e.- On-the-job training and Off-the-job training.

After a plan is developed for training, employees should be informed of the details. An experienced employee will act as a friend, philosopher and guide. The new employee follows the orders, carries out instructions and adopts the right technique while doing the job. In this way, he is able to learn the work practically.

While doing so, he can ask questions, seek clarifications on various job-related matters and obtain guidance from his senior employees. A timetable should also be prepared with periodic evaluations to inform employees about their progress. On-the-job training include coaching, job instruction training, apprenticeships, job rotation, etc.

A. On the Job Training Method:

Virtually, every employee, from the clerk to company president gets some on-the-job training, when he joins a firm. That is why William call it, the most common, the most widely used and accepted and the most necessary method of training employees in the skills essential for acceptable job performance.

Trainees earn as they learn under the watchful eyes of a master mechanic or craftsman, receive immediate feedback and practice in the actual work environment. It is associated with the same people they will work with after training. Under this technique, an employee is placed in a new job and is told how it may be performed.

It is primarily concerned with developing in an employee’s skills and habits consistent with the existing practices of an organization and orienting him to his immediate problems. It is mostly given to unskilled and semi-skilled jobs-clerical and sales jobs.

Employees are coached and instructed by skilled co-workers, by supervisors, by special training instructors. They learn the job by personal observation and practice as well as occasionally handling it. It is learning by doing and most useful for jobs that are either difficult to stimulate or can be learned quickly by watching and doing.

There is variety of OJT methods such as “Coaching” or “Understudy”, “Job rotation” and “special assignments”. Under coaching or understudy method, (which is also known as internship and apprenticeship methods) the employee is trained on-the-job by his immediate superior.

“Internship” is usually applied to managerial personnel and provides wide variety of job experience, often involving job rotation, or an “assistant to” type of position. Internships or assistantships are usually a combination of classroom and on-the-job training and are often used to train prospective managers or marketing personnel.

“Apprenticeship” is generally used to impart skills requiring long periods of practice as found in trade, crafts, and other technical fields. In “job rotation”, a management trainee is made to move from job-to-job at certain intervals. “Special assignments or committees” are other methods used to provide lower level executives with first-hand experience in working with actual problems.

Executives from various functional areas serve on “boards” and are required to analyze problems and recommend solutions to top management. On- the-job training is made more effective by the use of variety of training aids and techniques such as charts, lecture manuals, sample problems, demonstrations, tape recorders, oral and written explanation and other aids.

Training procedure involves following steps:

i. Instructor preparation,

ii. Trainee preparation,

iii. Present the task,

iv. Try out performance,

v. Follow-up.

Merits:

The first advantage of on-the-job training is that the trainee learns on the actual equipment in use and in the true environment of his job. He gets a feel of the actual production conditions and requirements. In this way, a transfer from a training centre or school to the actual production conditions following the training period is allowed.

Secondly, it is highly economical since no additional personnel or facilities are required for training. Thirdly, the trainee learns the rules, regulations and procedures by observing their day-to-day applications. He can, therefore, be easily evaluated by the management. Fourthly, this type of training is suitable alternative for a company in which there are almost as many jobs as there are employees.

The fifth advantage is that, it has the advantage of strongly motivating the trainee to learn since it is not located in the artificial situation of a classroom. Finally, it is most appropriate for teaching the knowledge and skills which can be acquired in a relatively short period, say a few days or weeks.

Demerits:

The principle disadvantage of on-the-job training is that, instruction is often highly disorganized and haphazard. This is due to reasons such as the inability of the experienced employee to impart skills to the trainee, the breakdown of the job for the purpose of instructions and the lack of motivation on the part of the trainee to receive training. Moreover, learners are often subjected to distractions of a noisy shop or office. Further, the other demerit is the low productivity, especially when the employee is unable to fully develop his skills.

The important types of on the job training methods are:

1. Job Instruction Training:

The JIT method (developed during II World War) is a four-step instructional process involving preparation, presentation, performance try out, and follows-up. It is used primarily to teach workers how to do their current jobs. A trainer, supervisor or co-worker acts as the coach.

This method is very popular in the states for preparing supervisors to train operatives. The JIT method requires skilled trainers, extensive job analysis, training schedule and prior assessment of the trainee’s job knowledge. This method is also known as “training through step- by-step learning”. It involves listing all necessary steps in the job, each in proper sequence. This steps show what is to be done, how it is to be done and when it is to be done.

The actual training follows a four steps process, beginning with-First, the preparation of the trainee for instruction. This includes putting him at ease, emphasizing the importance of the task and giving a general description of job duties and responsibilities. Second, the preparation of the instructions, giving essential information in a clear manner.

This includes positioning the trainee at work site, telling and showing him each step of the job, stressing why and how each step is carried out as it is shown. Third, having the trainee try out the job to show that he has understood the instructions. If there are any errors, they are corrected and fourth, encouraging questions and allowing the trainee to work along and the trainer follows-up regularly.

The JIT method provides immediate feedback on results, quick correction of errors, and provision of extra practice when required. However, it demands a skilled trainer and can interfere with production and quality.

2. Vestibule Training:

The concept of vestibule school or training centre is that, people will learn and develop skills while working in the situations similar to what they will face after they are put on the actual job. In this method, actual work conditions are simulated in a classroom. This method attempts to duplicate on-the-job situations in a company classroom. It is imparted with the help of equipment and machines which are identical to those in use in the place of work.

This technique enables the trainee to concentrate on learning the new skills rather than on performing an actual job. This system sometimes creates critical line staff difficulties. Theoretical training is given in the classroom, while the practical work is conducted on the production line. It is very efficient method of training semi-skilled personnel, particularly when many employees have to be trained for the same kind of work at the same time.

It is often used to train clerks, bank tellers, inspectors, machine operators, testers, typists, etc., it is most useful when philosophic concepts, attitudes, theories and problems solving abilities have to be learnt. Training is generally given in the form of lectures, conferences, case studies, role playing and discussion.

3. Training by Experienced Workmen:

By this method, training is imparted by experienced senior fellow-workers. It is particularly adaptable where experienced workmen need helpers. It is useful for departments in which workmen advance through successive jobs to perform a series of operations.

4. Training by Supervisors:

Such training is imparted on the job by the workers immediate supervisors. It provides to the trainees opportunities for getting acquainted with their bosses. The bosses too, have an opportunity to judge the abilities and potential of trainees from the point of view of their job performance.

The success of both these methods depends upon the fact that:

(a) The experienced supervisors must be good teachers;

(b) They should have incentives and sufficient time for carrying out the training programmes; and

5. Demonstrations and Examples (Learning by Seeing):

In the demonstration method, the trainer describes and displays the job as when he teaches an employee how to do the job by actually performing the activity himself and by going through a step-by-step explanation of “why” and “what” he is doing.

Teaching by example is effective in mechanical operations or interpersonal relationships, for job duties and responsibilities, for informal group standards, supervisory expectations, and the like.

Demonstrations are very effective in teaching because it is much easier to show a person how to do a job than to tell him or ask him to gather instruction from the reading material. Demonstrations are often used in combination with lectures, pictures, text materials, discussions, etc.

Demonstrations are particularly effective in the training for the acquisition of skills; but their usefulness is limited when it is a question of training management personnel. In a demonstration, the emphasis is primarily on know-how, the principles and theory of a job must, therefore, be taught by some other method.

6. Simulation:

Any training activity that explicitly places the trainee in an artificial environment that closely mirrors actual working conditions can be considered a simulation. Simulation activities include case exercises, experiential exercises, complex computer modelling, and vestibule training.

Case present an in-depth description of a particular problem an employee might encounter on the job. Experiential exercises are usually short, structured learning experiences where individual learn by doing. It could be used to create a conflict situation where employees have to experience a conflict personally and workout its resolution.

Computer modelling simulates the work environment by programming a computer to imitate some of the realities of the job. And in the vestibule training, employees learn their jobs on the equipment they will be using but the training is conducted away from the actual work floor.

Simulation techniques have been most widely used in the aeronautical industry. It is a mock- up real thing. Trainee interest and employee motivation are both high in simulation exercise because the actions of a trainee closely duplicate real job conditions.

This training is essential, in cases in which actual on-the-job practice might result in a serious inquiry, a costly error, or the destruction of valuable materials or resources. It is for this reason that the technique is a very expensive one.

It involves a particular procedure, simulated learning involves the following:

(a) In simulation, essential characteristics of a real-life situation are presented in an abstract form as whole characteristics are difficult to be simulated.

(b) A simulation often involves a telescopic, or compressing of time events; a single session may be equated with a month or many months of real-time situations. Further, the events and situations may be presented in brief, leaving out many details.

(c) Participants in the training programme are required to do according to the situation prescribed and to see the problem from the perspectives of various roles given in the situations.

(d) The role of instructor is quite restricted to allow the trainees to participate fully.

(e) After the exercise war, the instructor provides the feedback to the participants to evaluate themselves and to strengthen themselves by overcoming their weak points.

The trainee aids to develop diagnostic and decision making skills.

7. Apprenticeship:

This includes decisions concerning course content, means of instruction and examination and allocation of time between organised group instruction and work on the job.

The Civil Right Act of 1964 specifically prohibits discrimination in all phases of employment including training. Apprenticeship programmes are available in a number of crafts such as mechanists, electricians, pipe fitters, welders, tinners, carpenters, and millwrights.

For training in crafts, trades and in technical areas, apprenticeship training is the oldest and most commonly used method, especially when proficiency in a job is the result of relatively long training period of two years to three years for persons of superior ability and from four years to five years for others.

The field in which apprenticeship training is offered are numerous and range from the job of a draughtsman, a machinist, a printer, a tool-maker, a pattern designer, a mechanic, carpenters, weavers, tailor, bricklayers, iron workers, fitters, jewellers, die-sinkers, engravers, and electricians.

A major part of training time is spending on the job productive work. Each apprentice is given a programme of assignments according to a predetermined schedule, which provides for efficient training in trade skills. In India, the Apprentices Act, 1961 (amended in 1973) makes it obligatory on the part of all employers in the specified industries to place apprentices in the designed trades in terms of standard laid down.

The apprenticeship involves basic on-the-job training with related instructions embracing the entire period of training. During this period, each trainee is paid certain amount of stipend as stipulated in the Act.

Assistantships and internships are similar to apprenticeship because they also demand high levels of participation from the trainee. An internship is a kind of on-the-job training that usually combines job training with classroom instruction in trade schools, colleges or universities. Coaching is similar to apprenticeship because the coach attempts to provide a model for the trainee to copy.

8. Job Rotation:

Job rotation is the process of training employees by rotating them through series of related tasks. This kind of training involves the movement of trainee from one job to another.

This helps him to have a general understanding of how the organisation functions. The purpose of job rotation is to provide trainees with a larger organisational perspective and a greater understanding of different functional areas as well as better sense of their own career objectives and interests.

Apart from relieving boredom, job rotation allows trainees to build rapport with a wide range of individuals within the organization, facilitating future cooperation among departments. The cross-trained personnel offer a great amount of flexibility for organisation when transfers, promotions or replacements become inevitable.

Job rotation is more broadly trained and skilled workforce for the employer. The job rotation has one main advantage; it makes flexibility possible in the department. For instance, when one employee of a work unit is absent, another employee can perform his job.

9. Coaching:

Coaching is a kind of daily training and feedback given to employees by immediate supervisors. It involves a continuous process of learning by doing. It may be defined as an informal, unplanned training and development activity provided by supervisors and peers.

In coaching, the supervisor explains things and answers questions; he throws light on why things are done the way they are; he offers a model for trainee to copy; conducts lot of decision making meeting with trainees; procedures are agreed upon and the trainee is given enough authority to make decisions and even commit mistakes.

Of course, coaching can be a taxing job in that the coach may not possess requisite skills to guide the learner in a systematic way. Sometimes, doing a full day’s work may be more important than putting the learner on track.

When to use coaching usefully? Coaching could be put to use when:

i. An employee demonstrates a new competency.

ii. An employee expresses interest in a different job within the organisation.

iii. An employee seeks feedback.

iv. An employee is expressing low morale, violating company policies or practices or having performance problems.

v. An employee needs help with new skills following a formal training programme.

vi. Effective working, obviously, requires patience and communication skills.

It involves:

a. Explaining appropriate ways of doing things.

b. Making clear why actions were taken.

c. Starting observations accurately.

d. Offering possible alternatives/suggestions.

e. Following up.

10. Special Courses:

Rapid changes in technology may force companies to go in for this kind of training. By organising short-term courses which incorporate the latest developments in a particular field, the company may keep its employees up to date and ready to take on emerging challenges.

It is conducted at regular intervals by taking the help of outside consultants who specialise in a particular discipline. The teaching machine, a device originated by Sidney L. Pressey of Ohio State University in 1924, has become a popular technique in the past two decades. Programmed learning has been used in a number of ways, as in a textbook.

But its adaptation to a machine has stimulated more widespread use. Advantages to trainee are that one can select a personal pace of learning, go back over materials when desired, and use the machine when it convenient. A slow learner will be forced to go through every portion in the programme, while correct responses by fast learners will permit more rapid completion.

This method of instruction utilizes the basic learning concepts of:

(i) Establishing explicit goals,

(ii) Breaking the subject into bits of logically sequenced knowledge,

(iii) Requiring an active role on the part of the learner,

(iv) Making learner self-pacing possible, and

(v) Providing immediate reinforcement of learning through feedback of results.

Concerning the relative effectiveness of programmed learning as compared with other more conventional methods, attention can be allocated to three factors- saving in learning time amounts of immediate learning, and long-term retention. A survey of over 150 studies reveals that programmed instructions are clearly superior in only the first factor, learning time.

On the average, the time saved was approximately one-third of that normally taken by competitive methods. Time saved issues largely from individual flexibility in establishing one’s own pace. In a survey of 193 films, 20 per cent used some form of programmed instruction.

11. Orientation Training:

Orientation or induction training tries to put the new recruits at ease. Each new employee is usually taken on a formal tour of the facilities, introduced to key personnel and informed about company policies, procedures and benefits. To be effective, orientation training should be well planned and conducted within the first week of employment. Such a pre-job training helps the recruit to familiarise himself with the job and its settings.

12. Committee Assignments:

In this method, trainees are asked to solve an actual organisational problem. The trainees have to work together and offer solution to the problem. Assigning talented employees to important committees can give these employees a broadening experience and can help them to understand the personalities, issues and processes governing the organisation.

It helps them to develop team spirit and work united towards common goals. However, managers should very well understand that committee assignments could become notorious time wasting activities.

The above on-the-job methods are cost-effective. Workers actually produce while they learn. Since immediate feedback is available, they motivate trainees to observe and learn the right way of doing things. Very few problems arise in the case of transfer of training because the employees learn in the actual work environment where the skills that are actually used.

On-the-job methods may cause disruptions in production schedules. Experienced workers cannot use the facilities that are used in training. Poor learners may damage machinery and equipment. Finally, if the trainer does not possess teaching skills, there is very little benefit to the trainee.

B. Off-the Job Training Method:

Under this method, trainee is separated from the job situation and his attention is focused upon learning the material related to his future job performance. Since the trainee is not distracted by job requirements, he can place his entire concentration on learning the job rather than spending his time in performing it.

There is an opportunity for freedom of expression for the trainees. “Off- the-job training” simply means that training is not a part of everyday job activity. The actual location may be in the company classroom or in places which are owned by the company or in universities or associations which have no connections with the company. These include classroom activities like lectures, special study, films, case studies, role-playing, programmed instructions, laboratory training, etc.

1. Lecture (Classroom Instruction):

The lecture is a traditional and direct method of instructions. Lectures are regarded as one of the simplest way of imparting knowledge to the trainee, especially when facts, concept or principles, attitudes, theories and problem-solving abilities are to be taught. Lectures are formal organised talks by the training specialist.

The lecture method can be used for very large groups which are to be trained within a short- time for reducing the cost per trainee. It can be organised to rigorously promote company’s ideas and principles. Lectures are essential when it is a question of imparting technical or special information of a complex nature.

They are usually related with discussion, film shows, case studies, role playing and demonstrations, audio-visual aids enhance their values. The lecture method is not dead as some would believe. In the hands of able-lectures, and for certain kinds of purposes and participants, it may turn out to be more interesting and effective than any other method.

In training, the most important uses of lectures include:

a. Reducing anxiety about upcoming training programmes or organisational changes by explaining their purposes.

b. Presenting basic material that will provide a common background for subsequent activities,

c. Introducing a subject and presenting an overview of its scope,

d. Illustrating the application of rules, principles; reviewing, clarifying and summarising.

The main advantage of the lecture system is that it is simple and efficient and through it more material can be presented within a given time than by any other method.

2. The Conference Method:

In this method, the participating individuals ‘confer’ to discuss points of common interest to each other. It is a formal meeting, conducted in accordance with an organised plan, in which the leader seeks to develop knowledge and understanding by obtaining a considerable amount of oral participation of trainees.

It lays emphasis on small group discussions on organised subject matter and on the active participation of the members involved. Learning is facilitated by building up on the ideas contributed by the conferees. When big organisation use this method, the trainer uses audio-visual aids such as blackboards, mock ups, and slides; in some cases, the lectures are videotaped or audiotaped.

Even the trainee’s presentation can be taped for self- confrontation’ and self-assessment. There are three types of conferences. In the direct discussion, the trainer guides the discussion in such a way that the facts, principles or concepts are explained.

In the training conference, the instructor gets the group to pool its knowledge and past experience and bring different point of view to bear on the problem. In the seminar conference, answer is bound to a question or a solution to a problem. For this, the instructor defines the problem, encourages and ensures full participation in the discussion.

3. Seminar or Team Discussion:

This is an established method for training.

A seminar is conducted in many ways:

(i) It may be based on a paper prepared by one or more trainees on a subject selected in consultation with the person in charge of the seminar. It may be part of a study or related to theoretical studies or practical problems. The trainees read their papers, and this is followed by a critical discussion. The chairman of the seminar summarises the contents of the papers and the discussions which follow their reading.

(ii) The person in charge of the seminar contributes in advance the material to be analysed in the form of required readings. The seminar compares the reactions of trainees, encourages discussion, defines the general trends and guides the participants to arrive at conclusion.

(iii) It may be based on the statement made by the person in charge of the seminar or on a document by an expert who is invited to participate in the discussion.

(iv) Valuable working material may be provided to the trainees by actual files. The trainees may consult the files and bring these to the seminar where they may study in detail and various aspects, ramifications and complexities of a particular job or work or task.

4. Case Studies (Learning by Doing):

This method was first developed in the 1800s by Christopher Langdell at the Harvard Law School to help students to learn for themselves by independent thinking and discovering in the ever tangled skein of human affairs, principles and ideas which have lasting validity and general applicability. A collateral object is to help them develop skills in using their knowledge.

The case study is based upon the belief that managerial competencies can best be attained through the study, contemplation and discussion of concrete cases. The “case” is a set of data (real or fictional) written or oral miniature description and summary of such data that present issues and problems calling for solutions or action on the part of the trainee.

When the trainees are given cases to analyse, they are asked to identify the problem and recommend solutions for it. This method offers to the trainees matter of reflection and brings home to them a sense of the complexity of life as opposed to theoretical simplifications of and practices in the decision making process.

It diagnosis and deals with real life situations. This method is primarily useful as training technique for supervisors and is especially valuable as a technique of developing decision making skills and for broadening the perspective of the trainee.

The person in charge of training, makes out a case, provides the necessary explanations, initiates the discussion going and then once the discussion gets going he intervenes as little as possible. In the incident method, a full detailed description of a situation is not given. The trainer merely presents an outline often in the form of a complaint from a customer or a severe conflict in the management of a business.

The trainee arrives at the facts in the issue by asking questions from the trainer or finding out a solution by “acting out” the situation in which a trainee plays a role. In this method, trainers from a particular business describe its development and some of its problems. After discussions, and detailed studies, the trainee prepares a report which contains analyses of the situation and their recommendations on the corrective actions to be taken.

5. Role Playing:

This method was developed by Moreno, a Venetian Psychiatrist. He coined the terms “role playing”, “role-reversal”, “socio-drama”, “psycho-drama”, and a variety of specialised terms which emphasis on learning human relations skills through practice and insight into one’s own behaviour and its effect upon others.

It has been defined as, “a method of human interaction which involves realistic behaviour in the imaginary situations”. As Norman Major has pointed out, a “role playing experience soon demonstrates the gap between ‘thinking and doing’. The idea of role playing involves exchange, doing and practice.”

Role playing primarily involves employee, employer- relationships. Hiring, firing, discussing a grievance procedure, conducting a post appraisal interview or disciplining a subordinate or a salesman making a representation to a customer. In role playing, trainees act out a given roles as they would in a stage play.

Two or more trainees are assigned parts to play before the rest of the class. These parts do not involve any memorisation of lines or any rehearsals. The role players are simply informed of a situation and of the respective roles they have to play. Sometime, after the preliminary planning, the situation is acted out by the role players.

6. Programmed Instructions (Teaching by the Machine Method):

Programmed instructions involves a sequence of steps which are often set up through a central panel of an electronic computer as guides in the performance of a desired operation or series of operations.

It incorporates a pre-arranged, proposed or desired course of proceedings pertaining to the learning or acquisition of some specific skills or general knowledge. Programmed instructions involve breaking down information into meaningful units and then arranging these in proper way to form a logical and sequential learning programme or package.

In such a programme, knowledge is imparted with the use of a textbook or a teaching machine. The programme involves: presenting questions, facts or problems to the trainee to utilise the information given; and the trainee instantly receives feedback and sometime rewards or penalties on the basis of the accuracy of his answers.

The programmed instruction technique can be in the form of programmed texts or manuals while in some organizations teaching machines are utilised. All programmed instruction approaches have common characteristics- they condense the material to be learned into highly organised, logical sequences which require the trainee to respond. The ideal format provides for merely instantaneous feedback that informs the trainee if his or her response is correct.

7. Laboratory Training:

(i) Sensitivity Training:

Sensitivity Training is an experimental approach to training. Sensitivity training is a group training method that uses intensive participation and gives immediate feedback for self- analysis and change. It provides participants an opportunity to actually experience some concepts of management just as a manager would experience them in his own organisational situation.

This training has two advantage:

(a) Participants remain involved and enthusiastic

(b) The responsibility of learning experience lies with the participants.

He would make positive efforts to derive many benefits from the exercise. The training attempts to develop the diagnostic ability of the participants – the ability to perceive reality. At a group level one learns about normative structures and authority relationships leading to better teamwork.

It increases sensitivity, training aims at developing sensitivity within people towards thoughts, feelings and behaviour of other persons. Through this improves one’s human interactions, the effectiveness of sensitivity training depends upon the ability of the participants to apply the concepts and awareness obtained in the laboratory or groups to his job, the transfer of his knowledge to the organisation is possible if the organisation has an open culture and an atmosphere for open discussion, encourage conflict resolution and promote mutual trust.

(ii) T-Groups:

One of the methods of the sensitivity training is the T-group. Bethel Maine of USA was the pioneer of the T-group. It was considered necessary that to change behaviour imparting necessary skills is required. A change in a variety of skills and experiences like self-awareness, interpersonal relationships, group organisational process, teamwork and intergroup conflict resolution.

Sensitivity training has developed to the status of an intervention in organizational development. T-group training is processed-oriented and not content-oriented where people operate on a feeling level of communication, observing revealing, listening, and unravelling messages.

8. Tele-Training:

A training option that can be useful when trainees are dispersed across various physical locations is tele-training. Satellites are used to beam live training broadcasts to employees at different locations. In addition to the video reception, the satellite link can allow trainees to ask questions of the instructor during the broadcast.

Two disadvantages of tele-training are the need for an expensive satellite connection and the difficulty of scheduling the broadcast so that everyone will be able to attend. A company can solve the scheduling problems by videotaping the presentation and then offering the videotape to people in locations schedules conflicted with the live broadcast.

The training instructor can be available via phone or computer to respond to questions. This method makes the trainer’s expertise available to trainees without requiring him or her to redeliver the entire training programme.

9. Computer-Aided Instruction and Interacting Video:

All these have one thing in common. They allow the trainee to learn at his or her own pace. Also, they allow material already learned to be bypassed in favour of material with which a trainee is having difficulty. After the introductory period, the instructor need not be present and the trainee can learn as his or her time allows. These methods sound good, but may not be available with the resources of some small businesses.

Computer based training can range from the use of a CD-ROM to training over the Internet. Web-based training is fast becoming the training method of choice. Both small and large businesses are finding computer training to be a cost-effective medium. In particular, if a job requires extensive use of computers then computer-based training is highly job-related and provides for a high degree of transfer of training back to the job.

Computers also have the advantages of allowing trainees to learn at a comfortable pace. As a trainer, the computer never gets tired, bored or short tempered. Further, computer can be a multimedia training option in which text can be combined with film, graphics and audio components.

Learnshare is a successful example of collaboration among companies to use e-learning. Members of Learnshare include General Motor Corp. Motorola Inc., Owens-Corning, Deere & Co., and 3M Corp., among others.

10. Experimental Exercises:

Experimental exercises are usually short, structured learning experiences where individuals learn by doing. For instance, rather than talk about interpersonal conflicts and how to deal with them, and experiential exercise could be used to create a conflict situation where employees have to experience a conflict personally workout its resolution.

After completing the exercise, the facilitator or trainer typically discusses what happened and introduces theoretical concepts to help explain the members’ behaviour during the exercise.