Training Techniques: On the Job Training Techniques and Off the Job Training Techniques

For example, job instruction training is classified as on-the-job, even though it may be used off the job as well. Objectives, principles of learning, and organizational contingencies will all influence the appropriateness of the techniques selected.

Learning normally takes place through informational methods of training or through experiential training methods. The effectiveness of each varies from the context and type of training. Informational methods are normally used to teach factual material, skills, or attitudes. Generally, they do not require the trainee to actually experience or practice the material taught during the training session.

Some of the training techniques can be categorised into main headings:- A. On-the-Job Techniques B. Off-the Job Techniques.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

A: Some of the on-the-job techniques of employee training are: 1. Job Instruction Training 2. Apprenticeship Training 3. Job Rotation 4. Committees and Special Assignments 5. Coaching.

B: Some of the off-the-job techniques of employee training are:- 1. Lectures, Special Studies and Discussion 2. Programmed Instruction 3. Orientation Training 4. Vestibule Training 5. Films 6. Videotape 7. Correspondence.

Training Techniques – On the Job and Off the Job Training Techniques

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Training Techniques – On-the-Job and Off-the-Job Training Techniques

Bass and Vaughan have classified on-and off-the-job training techniques. This classification is based upon the location in which such techniques are generally used/when, in actuality, some of the techniques may be used in either setting. For example, job instruction training is classified as on-the-job, even though it may be used off the job as well.

Objectives, principles of learning, and organizational contingencies will all influence the appropriateness of the techniques selected. Following is a discussion on a number of the techniques, which are utilized primarily for on-the job and off-the-job training techniques.

1. On-the-Job Techniques:

In this action we will discuss five on-the-job training techniques:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(i) Job instruction training,

(ii) Apprenticeship training,

(iii) Job rotation,

(iv) Committees and special assignment, and

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(v) Coaching.

(i) Job Instruction Training (JIT):

Job instruction training (JIT) was developed during World War II to provide a guide for on-the-job skill training of white- and blue-collar employees as well as technician. Essentially, JIT involves four steps – (1) preparing the trainee, (2) demonstrating the job, (3) having the trainee perform the job, and (4) following up on the employee’s performance.

Trainee preparation involves relaxing the new employee through anxiety reduction. Trainers can do this by showing interest in the new workers, introducing them to co-workers, describing the importance of the trainees’ jobs and the objectives of the training, and pointing out the responsibilities and duties of the trainees. Formal job descriptions and specifications can help, employees know what is expected of them, thereby facilitating the learning process.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

In demonstrating the job, trainers should also tell trainees how to do the job. Such parallel auditory and visual measures help to foster learning by melding use of two sensory organs rather than one. Learning is further facilitated and made easier to follow if the job is broken down into subparts and a step-by-step sequencing followed when appropriate.

Trainees should also be positioned so that they will observe the demonstration from the same perspective they will have when actually performing the task. For example, in demonstrating a word processor, trainees should be positioned directly behind the trainer so they will not see the job performed backwards or upside down. In addition, the JIT technique utilizes the principle of repetition, and requires even the simplest of jobs to be demonstrated at least twice.

JIT also requires trainees to perform the job at least twice. During the second performance, the trainees must explain how and why they are doing each doing each step. This procedure helps trainees conceptualize the task better, and also shows the trainer how well trainees understand the task. Trainers should point out errors and omissions as trainees are doing the job, and should not wait until the total task is completed.

This allows immediate feedback (KOR) and an opportunity to correct behaviors before they become incorrectly leaned procedures. Another reason for immediate correction of errors is to avoid damage to machinery or products, or injury to the trainee or other employees. Trainers must correct trainees in a non- threatening manner in order not to create too much anxiety which could impede motivation and learning.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The final step in JIT is follow-up on employee performance. The organization must make certain that the worker is correctly performing the task in order to assess the need for additional training. An important aspect of this step is to let trainees know to whom they may go for help after the formal training period has completed-for example, their immediate supervisor, fellow employees, or a combination of the two.

Follow-up also provides information to trainers and the firm for evaluating and modifying existing training programs. Finally, follow-up lets trainees see that the organization is in rested in correct performance, and it provides feedback to the worker as to the effectiveness of that performance.

(ii) Apprenticeship Training:

Skilled crafts, such as carpentry, plumbing, iron working, and airline mechanics, utilize apprenticeship training. These crafts require a diverse range of knowledge, skills, independence of judgment, and maturity.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

A broad definition of an apprentice is:

A person at least 16 years of age who is covered by a written agreement registered with the State Apprenticeship Council providing for not less than 4,000 hours of reasonably continuous employment under an approved schedule of work experience and supplemented by a recommended minimum of 144 hours per year of related class-room instruction.

Each apprentice is assigned to an experienced worker who has already learned the trade, and who is referred to as a journeyman. As this discussion indicates, apprenticeship programs are formal and lengthy, frequently involving two or more years, and emphasize combining off-the-job and on the-job supervision under skilled instructors. There are many trades which use apprentices, and there are a great many workers involved in apprenticeship training. In one survey, one-third of all firms which responded indicated that they conducted apprenticeship training.

Apprenticeship training is widely used when complex skills are involved. When such training is well planned and correctly conducted, it permits the integration of the best features of both on-the-location and on-the-location training. It also provides the apprentice with an opportunity to earn while learning, and’ thereby increases motivation. The company also receives some benefits from these programs in the form of some productive output.

There are limitations to apprenticeship training as well. Some of these limitations are the same as those discussed for on-the-job training in general. Sometimes apprenticeship programs are unplanned or haphazardly conducted. In addition, production rather than learning may be emphasized. Programs may be too long for some individuals, too short for others, and just about right for others. Because apprenticeship programs have fixed rates which apply to all trainees, differences in individuals’ learning curves and learning rates simply cannot be taken into account.

(iii) Job Rotation:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Job rotation is associated with a number of meanings. It may refer to assigning managerial trainees to different jobs in order to broaden their supervisory skills, knowledge, and experience, and to acquaint them with the functions of various departments in the organization.

In some instances, this managerial training may be for experienced managers who are being groomed for top- level management positions. Even managers who are not likely candidates for promotion can benefit from this procedure, since it provides them with the ability to handle more varied assignments.

Job rotation can also be used for non-managers as a technique to reduce boredom brought on by specialization. For example, production workers can be taught to perform three jobs, and rotated from one to another every month. In addition to reducing boredom, such procedures may allow employees to understand how their jobs relate to other jobs in the company. It also provides the company with a pool of trained resources that can be quickly utilized in the event of sickness, vacation, terminations, or other emergencies.

The following example of a one-year management training program highlights some important aspects of this development technique. During the first half of year, trainees were assigned to the head-office and moved from department to department for periods ranging from four to eight weeks. In addition, for a period of two months trainees were “loaned” to subsidiary firm with whom the main office had extensive dealings. During the second half of year, trainees were assigned to a field office.

This provided the trainees with additional information about the company and its relationships to subordinate units as well as with an opportunity for hands on managerial experience. Following completion of the training program, participants selected two departments in the main office to which they would like to be assigned. They were then assigned to one of these two choices a decision based upon both the needs of the organization and the desires of the individual trainee.

This particular program had two primary benefits (for both worker and firm. First, trainees were given opportunities to acquire specific skills, knowledge, experience, and information about the work of various functional departments. Such development included an understanding of the relationship of specific departments to the total organization, other departments, and outside customers.

It also enabled trainees to personally assess their styles and personalities, and to choose a department where they felt they might best fit in. The firm also benefited from this program by permitting a number of managers an opportunity to evaluate trainees in a variety of settings. This type of information can be helpful to personnel departments and top management in evaluating trainees’ strengths and weaknesses, and in developing career planning for these new entrants into the work force. Although a number of problem areas surfaced during the program the overall effects proved beneficial from both the organizational and individual sides.

Job rotation may also facilitate cooperation among departments, since those rotated become much more familiar with each other’s problems. When trainees are assigned to departments later on a permanent basis, they will have a much better feel for inter-departmental working relationships. Further, management trainees may bring new ideas to the departments to which they are assigned.

The procedure also provides a better basis for trainees to choose the department to which they would like to be assigned on a permanent basis.

For example, unlike apprenticeship training, job rotation can actually take advantage of individual differences by structuring the program to meet the needs of the individual being trained. One trainee spent the entire two years in the main office, since the final assignment for which the trainee had been hired did not involve working with the field offices.

There are also limitations to job rotation. Some programs require movement from one geographical area to another. Such moves may be hard on the individual, but refusal to move could limit chances for promotion within the firm. Frequent movement also tends to reduce loyalty to the firm. Also, for trainees who are practicing managers, such moves result in their focusing primary attention on short-range projects with quick payoffs to make their performance look good.

This short-range focus may lead manager trainees to view their supervisor as the person to please, and to fail to develop good peer relationships or adequately represent their subordinates. The short-range focus is a two-sided problem in that subordinate of fraudulently rotated managers may not adopt their suggestions because they view those managers as only temporary supervisors. Such subordinates believe that if they change now, they will simply have to change again when another new manager arrives.

Another limitation related to an emphasis on showing immediate results is that some capable trainees may adjust slowly, have difficulty showing immediate results, and therefore receive unfavorable evaluations which may or may not be justified. For example, slow adjustment may appropriately be negatively evaluated if the organization is a dynamic one in which all managers must adapt quickly to rapid change. However, slower adjustment in a stable environment may not represent a problem at all.

Another problem is that training may be uneven from one department to another. As a consequence, trainees may learn a great deal from one assignment but relatively little from others. Family job rotation may be difficult in smaller companies because opportunities to move are limited by the small number of available positions and by the fact that individuals cannot be spared to conduct the training efforts.

Trainees must be informed of the goals of the program is they are to gain the most from job rotation. In addition, such programs are most effective when they take into account the individual differences between trainees and thus are tailored for each person in order that the specific types of learning needed by each individual are obtained.

(iv) Committees and Special Assignments:

Many types of special assignments are available for on-the-job training. First, trainees may be give special projects on which to work in order to broaden their experiences. For example, if a trainee is assigned to a project involving data collection or employee turnover, the trainee may learn not only about the reasons for and consequences of turnover but also how to conduct surveys and evaluate their results.

Trainees assigned as assistants to managers may become prepared to perform the tasks of the manager if necessary. For example, a professional in personnel department who is being groomed as a possible successor to the manager may be taken from a specialized area (for example, testing administration), and assigned to work directly with the manager in handling all functional areas of personnel management.

Individuals may also be given committee assignments in order to broaden their experience. In a unionized plant, for example, a trainee in personnel might be assigned to a committee handling employee grievances. This could provide insight into how the grievance procedure works from both the management and union perspective. Or a junior university faculty member might be assigned to the college grants committee in order to better understand the kinds or research conducted by others as the budgetary procedures of the university.

Closely related to committee assignments is the concept of junior boards of directors, or multiple management for management development. Under this approach, lower- and middle-level managers “participate formal” along with top management, in the planning and administration of corporate affairs through what amounts to permanent advisory committees. Such junior boards may investigate specific problems and recommend solutions, or they may actually carry on activities which are representative of those undertaken by the firm’s real board of directors.

2. Off-The-Job Training Techniques:

We will now focus on off-the-job training techniques which are based on the classification of Bernard M. Bass and James A. Vaughan. We will not discuss films and television. These media have many of the same characteristics as lectures, and they are really aids to training the fare “used to erase the effectiveness of a training program” rather than techniques for conducting training.

i. Lectures, Special Studies and Discussion:

The lecture is probably the most commonly used method for both on-the-job and off-the-job training. Its principle advantage is that it can provide factual information to large numbers of people, making it a relatively low-cost alternative. Such economy can be false, however, because merely exposing trainees to information does not mean they will acquire knowledge.

A number of limitations of the lecture method are frequently cited. First, in lectures per se, communication is one-way. Trainees are passive, have no opportunity to practice, and receive neither reinforcement nor KOR. In addition, individual differences in learning rates are not taken into account, so some trainees may be hopelessly lost while others are bored. This results because trainers do not receive feedback about whether or not trainees understand the materials presented.

Because of these limitations, much criticism has been voiced against the lecture method. In one study, the lecture method (with questions permitted) was ranked last of nine development techniques evaluated. In this same study, two other techniques (films and television) that also involve one-way communication, passive learning, lack of opportunity for practice, and no feedback were rated seventh and eighth.

Thus, the lecture, even with provisions for questions, was ranked lower than two communications media that did not permit any two-way communication. It appears that such strong criticism of the lecture method is unwarranted. Although this technique is not appropriate for teaching complex skills and may not be appropriate for trying to change attitudes and values, it does appear to be effective for imparting factual information.

Given the costs associated with certain training techniques such as television, films, computer-assisted instruction, and programmed instruction, the lecture method does have significant cost advantages when the goal of training is knowledge acquisition. The conference or discussion method has some disadvantages as well. It is restricted to relatively small groups, since active participation by most individuals is less likely to occur in large groups. Further, discussion takes time, and less factual information may be imparted in a given period of time than would be the case in a lecture.

It is possible to combine discussion with special studies to facilitate teaming. Such would be the technique used in a seminar on personnel management where students would be assigned outside materials and come to class prepared to discuss the content and issues involved. This technique has applicability in business as well.

For example, it was reported that the chairman of the board of the Koppers Company met three times a month for three hours in his office with a group of ten young managers for discussion of some previously assigned readings. The goal of the meetings was to provide managers with an opportunity to see how upper-level executives thought.

ii. Programmed Instruction:

During the 1950s’ programmed instruction (PI) was widely discussed as a revolutionary development technique. Although the revolution never materialized, and PI did not turn out to be the solution to all-training problems, this technique has taken its place as an important form of instructional technology.

Programmed instruction involves dividing the materials to be learned into small units or parts called frames. These frames may be provided through different media, such as sequential sections of a PI text-book or visual images on the screen of a teaching machine, or by a combination of the two.

Trainees read the first frame, which provides them with certain information. Each subsequent frame provides additional information and builds upon the materials previously presented to the trainee. Typically, trainees are required to respond to specific questions about the materials by filling in a blank or selecting a true-false alternative. Trainees are immediately informed whether their choice is correct or incorrect.

In some instances, when incorrect answers are given, trainees are merely informed of the error and permitted to continue. In other instances, the concept of branching is used. Branching means moving trainees to other predetermined questions based on their previous responses. For example, if trainees respond incorrectly, they may be moved back for remedial materials.

In very complex PI programs, multiple branching may be used. Trainees who answer a number of questions in a row correctly are moved to more advanced materials. Trainees who miss one question may be moved to remedial materials, and if they miss the first few questions in the remedial section, they are sent to even more basic materials or perhaps even referred to the instructor.

A major advantage of PI is that it utilizes a number of the principles of learning. It is individualized, since trainees proceed through the frames at their own rate. Learning is active, since trainees must respond in some manner to each frame. In addition, KOR is immediate. Reinforcement is immediate also if responses are correct, and even if responses are incorrect, the immediacy of KOR permits trainees to correct errors before incorrect information is learned.

A second advantage of PI is that groups do not have to be assembled at the same time, as would be the case in the lecture method. The resultant flexibility in assigning individual trainees may permit more efficient allocation of organizational resources. For example, Tata Iron and Steel Co. (TISCO) has developed a series of audio-visual tapes on a variety of technical materials. These tapes and learning machines are provided to units of 40 or more workers, and subjects included in this program range from basic accounting to how to manufacture a complex alloy.

A final advantage of PI is that consistent information is transmitted to each trainee since everyone works with precisely the same materials.

Given the extent to which PI appears to utilize the principles of learning, one would expect it to be a very effective development technique. However, a review by Nash, Muczyk, and Vettori of more than 100 research studies dealing with the effectiveness of PI as opposed to conventional techniques (primarily the lecture) in both industrial and academic settings revealed contradictory findings. Comparisons were made in terms of training time, materials learned, and retention of the learning.

In terms of training time, PI appeared to have some clear advantages over conventional methods. The results on immediate learning were less clear, since PI was superior in only rune studies, not significantly different in 20, and less effective in three. In terms of retention, PI was found to be equivalent to conventional techniques.

In addition to the inconclusive nature of the research on its effectiveness, PI possesses other disadvantages. First, it is primarily effective with factual materials, especially those which can be presented in a logical sequence, such as basic statistics, accounting, or instructions on cleaning and assembling a rifle. Therefore, PI may not be useful for programs dealing with human relations training and attitudinal change.

PI may be very expensive, at least during its initial design and development stages. Therefore, organizational size will influence whether PI is utilized, since unless there is a large enough number of trainees who will use the program, the cost of development may be prohibitive. In addition, even if the number of trainees is large, the cost of PI may be prohibitive if the content is rapidly changing in a dynamic organization, thereby necessitating frequent updating and change.

One relatively recent development closely related to PI involves algorithmic learning. Tavemier has reported the results of such a program at Morgan Guaranty Trust Company in training individuals in investigating and resolving customer complaints. Prior to the adoption of this new technique, the firm- had utilized an on-the-job training program requiring four to six months. The bank “developed a self-instruction manual complete with algorithms (a kind of decision tree) outlining the decision making process used by experienced… [personnel].”

Algorithmic learning appears to be a promising technique for a variety of training situations. It could be utilized, for example, “to clarify complex administrative and clerical procedures, labor-management agreements, hiring and promotion policies and practices, and to handle warranty claims and training manuals for technical employees.”

In addition to its applicability to a broad spectrum of training programs, algorithmic learning proved cost- effective at Morgan Guaranty. It “saved on overtime, hiring costs, and training time; obtained higher output from the trainees at an earlier stage; and reduced the number of mistakes both during and after the training period.”

In addition, the bank “saved” the time of experienced workers who continued to devote their full time to work during the training period. This pilot program has proven to be so successful that the bank is currently developing additional training programs based on algorithmic learning for use with new employees in other job classification.

Training Techniques – 2 Commonly Used Techniques: On-the-Job and Off-the-Job Techniques

Some of the commonly used techniques for training are described below:

1. On-the-Job Techniques:

On-the-job training, role-play, case study, etc. are used as experiential techniques of training.

i. On-the-Job Training:

A session during which a job or part of a job is learned through explaining and demonstrating the ideal way of performing it and, thereafter, asking a trainee to do the job under supervision. This can be done through talk, demonstration, and practice.

The method ensures that the required skills and knowledge are transferred to the trainee and involves limited trainer cost. The effectiveness of this method largely depends on the trainer’s skills and willingness.

ii. Role-Play:

Trainees are asked to enact, in the training situation, the role they will be called upon to play in their work. It is mainly used for the practice of dealing with face-to-face situations. This method ensures active learning under simulated situations that are close to reality. However, this method may not be suitable, if trainees do not take the role enactment seriously.

iii. Case Study or Analysis:

A history of some event or set of circumstances, with relevant details, is examined by the trainees. Case studies may focus on diagnosing the causes behind the problem or a solution to it. It helps in developing decision making and problem-solving skills. The method ensures active learning. However, the case studies need to be continuously updated and trainer should be careful not to dominate the discussions.

iv. In-Tray:

Trainees are given a series of files, papers, and letters similar to those they will be required to deal with at the place of work, to take action on each piece of work. The results are marked or compared with one another. This method is suitable for giving a trainee desk worker a clear understanding of the real-life problems and their probable solutions.

v. Games and Simulations:

Trainees are provided with information about a company’s financial position, products, market, etc. They are given different management roles to perform. These groups/individuals run the company. Decisions are made and actions are taken. The probable results of these decisions in terms of profitability are then calculated.

This method is suitable for giving trainee managers a practice in dealing with management problems. It provides feedback to the trainee and presents him/her situations involving realistic challenges. However, this method is highly competitive, time consuming, and may stifle creativity.

vi. Project:

This gives an opportunity to the trainee to display his/her initiative and creative ideas. The trainer lays down the particular task but the lines to be followed to achieve the objectives are left to the trainee to decide. This method can be used where initiative and creativity need stimulating or testing.

vii. Computer-Assisted Instruction:

This method allows trainees to move at their own pace. The training gets standardized over a period of time. Feedback is provided to the trainee. This method is relatively costly and provides very limited opportunity and flexibility for trainee interaction.

viii. Group Dynamics:

Trainees are put into a situation in which the behaviour of each individual is subject to examination and comment by the other trainees. Feedback is made available to the trainee. This method is effective in developing interpersonal skills.

ix. Sensitivity Training:

In this method a small group of trainees, say 8-14, work together to develop interpersonal skills. Sensitivity training can help a lot in improving self- concept, reducing prejudice, and changing interpersonal behaviour. However, this method may at times become threatening to the trainee.

x. Mentoring:

The trainee is attached to a mentor, that is, an experienced member of the organization who serves as a friend, adviser, and confidant to a trainee to acquire knowledge and skills under one-to-one guidance. The relationship with the mentor in an organization or outside the organization may be formally planned or informally developed.

2. Off-the-Job Techniques:

Various informational techniques such as lecture, talk, discussion, etc. are used as training methods.

i. Lecture:

A talk given to the trainees about the essential components of the task involved, without much participation in the form of questions or discussions on the part of the trainees. It is suitable for a large audience.

The timing and information that has to be shared has to be worked out beforehand. It is as good as programmed instruction and is low-cost. The major limitation of the lecture method is that the learner is passive and it is not tailored to suit an individual trainee. As a result, the transfer of knowledge may be poor.

ii. Talk:

It allows the participation of trainees. It could be through questions asked by either of the party and discussions during the session. It is suitable when the number of participants is small, say less than 25. The main advantage of this method is greater interaction and the involvement of trainees that facilitates learning.

iii. Discussion:

Knowledge, ideas, and opinions on a particular topic are freely exchanged among the trainees and instructors. This method is suitable where the application of information is a matter of opinion, when attitudes need to be induced or changed, and obtaining feedback from the instructor about the way in which trainees may apply the knowledge they learnt.

iv. Audio-Visuals:

Audio-visuals as an informational training method can reach a large audience. It allows for replays and is quite a versatile method. However, the major limitation of this method is that it is not tailored to individual trainees and learners remain passive during audio-visual demonstration.

v. Independent Study:

This method allows trainees to learn at their own pace and does not require very intensive involvement and participation of the trainer. However, it requires, for its effectiveness, good library resources taking care of the requirements of the trainees at varying levels. The major limitation of this method is the trainee’s motivation level. This method would not be applicable to all jobs.

vi. Programmed Instructions:

It allows trainees to move at their own pace and can be very effective at a specified level. It encourages trainees’ involvement and helps them to get an immediate feedback. However, it is quite expensive to develop and is not suitable for cognitive tasks.

Training Techniques – Most Common Employee Training Techniques

Several of the most common employee training techniques are briefly described below and evaluated by application of the above criteria:

1. Off-the-Job Techniques:

The trainee is typically not producing a product or service which engaged in these forms of training.

a. Orientation Training:

Objectives of this technique vary from firm to firm but typically include an attempt to develop a positive attitude toward the firm (loyalty). The length of formal orientation programs ranges from less than 1 to several days’ duration. Orientation usually precedes the beginning of any productive work experience.

Its content includes such diverse topics as the history of the organization, company policies and procedures, employee benefits, career paths available, a tour of organizational facilities, a review of resources (counseling, cafeteria, recreational programs), and major organizational philosophies and programs (e.g., the use of transactional analysis at American Airlines).

Two major issues pervade the design of orientation programs. One is the question of how much material should be included and in what form (written, verbal, or visual). The answer to this question depends heavily on the trainer’s assessment of how much content will likely be retained (that is the objective) or how much “selling” must be done to develop a positive attitude.

Experience suggests that better received by most employees, who are probably anxious to begin work and demonstrate their usefulness to the organization. Later (perhaps after 2 weeks) they can be scheduled for a second session, at which time the more extraneous material can be presented and their questions can be answered.

The other major issue concerns the ease of evaluating the effectiveness of orientation programs. If the objective is to communicate content-oriented materials, then it is possible to test the new employees on their retention at the end of the training seminar (or later). Alternatively, if the objective is to reduce future employee turnover by developing more loyal employees, then not only will the evaluation be delayed substantially, but so many other factors intervene as to make objective evaluation almost worthless.

b. Vestibule Training:

Used almost exclusively for skill development, vestibule programs involve setting up realistic production-like equipment and materials away from the actual workplace. It reproduces the workplace tasks in an environment conducive to close observation and individualized instruction. Many of the learning principles are incorporated (participation, practice, feedback), and the assessment of skills developed is readily observable or measurable.

The time required is typically flexible, depending on the learner’s pace of development and the job’s complexity. The costs of development and operation may both be high, however, and prohibitive for the small firm. Vestibule training is most appropriate for those positions requiring use of mechanical equipment, ranging from the use of punch-press machines to key-punch machines.

c. Films:

Films are often used to demonstrate appropriate supervisory behaviors, or even to convince the viewers to change their perspective on a given issue. Purchased commercially, films typically cost $400 to $500, or rent for approximately 10 percent of that amount. They have frequently been misused organizationally, as fillers or as entertainment rather for true learning purpose.

A projector, screen, and suitable room are required, as is a trainer who has, at a minimum, previewed the film, prepared introductory comments, and developed a thoughtful plan for stimulating focused discussion subsequent to the showing. A critique of films by learning theorists shows them to be among the poorer techniques for incorporating learning concepts.

d. Videotape:

A technique closely aligned with films is the use of videotape equipment, available in either black and white or color playback, with sound. This equipment is typically used to provide feedback to trainees on their actual behavior; therefore, it is more clearly skill-oriented. Costs can range up to several thousand dollars of initial investment, but the operating costs are relatively low and the uses limited only by the trainer’s imagination.

Several learning concepts are directly incorporated, such as participation, feedback, and reinforcement. A dysfunction is that the tech individual trainee (as in the development of personal selling skills) and less effective as simply a group demonstration device. An outstanding example of the use of videotape is by the Armour-Dial Management Institute, which uses this technique in a vestibule setting to conduct its week-long Professional Salesman Workshops.

e. Lecture:

The lecture is singularly useful for transmitting knowledge and impractical for attitude change or skill development. It is widely used, economical to develop, flexible in application both with regard to time required and group size, and its effectiveness can be readily assessed by objective tests of knowledge. It incorporates very little of good learning theory, and perhaps is most blatant in its violation of the concept of trainee involvement.

Although no special facilities other than an auditorium or classroom are required, the importance of platform presentation skills are often underestimated, thereby depreciating the value of the technique in practice.

f. Programmed Instruction:

This technique (PI) has acquired increasing popularity. Oriented primarily toward knowledge acquisition, PI most clearly incorporates the major principles of learning. Its highlights are self-pacing, individualized entry at the appropriate background level, immediate feedback, correction and reinforcement, active involvement of the trainee, and arrangement of the material in ascending order of complexity.

The essence of the PI technique is the systematic presentation of small units of material (one or more sentences) coupled with the requirement of an overt response (fill in the blank or choose one of several alternative answers) from the trainee. After self- checking the response, the individual is directed on the next material. Mastery at one level, then, is a prerequisite to further learning.

Programmed instruction requires minimal trainer supervision, but it is time-consuming to properly prepare materials. PI texts can be used with almost any size group.

A PI program is inexpensive to administer, although relatively costly to develop. Its effectiveness, particularly in reducing the total time required for learning, has been well documented. Honeywell information Systems, for example, incorporated programmed instruction texts into their courses in basic COBOL computer programming—and reduced their training costs for 40,000 students by 25 percent per year. Many observers feel that the uses of PI have not yet been fully explored and will expand rapidly in the years ahead.

g. Correspondence:

This method involves the receipt of input (texts, manuals, instructional guides) by mail and requires the student to absorb the material and usually submit a completed examination before receiving the subsequent phases of the material. The objectives are typically two fold- (1) acquisition of knowledge and (2) development of basic skills. Frequently and (3) development of basic skills. Frequently a certain amount of technical equipment (e.g., electronic test devices) will be included as part of the package so that the trainee can practice the skill while at home.

Training costs are fixed (the cost of the course is known in advance), supervision required is minimal or absent, and any number of trainees can be simultaneously handled. Trainee participation, self-pacing, and feedback are typically incorporated. The most serious weakness is probably the difficulty (time lag) in obtaining answers to student questions.

In other words, the student can become extremely frustrated at the lack of on—the spot supportive feedback and redirection when needed. Effective correspondence courses are often expensive to develop (especially for small groups of employees or in specialized areas), and, therefore, many organizations rely on commercial programs or those offered by colleges and universities or by trade schools.

2. On-the-Job Techniques:

These techniques are defined as those that allow the worker to produce a product or provide a service simultaneously as the training taken place. This “learn as you earn” approach has great appeal to organizations and trainees alike, from the dual perspectives of cost effectiveness and motivation of the student (feeling of contribution). In general, total training time using on- the-job techniques is quite extended. Also, the usual orientation of the programs is toward skill development, in sharp contrast to several off-the-job approaches.

a. Apprenticeship:

As typically practiced, apprenticeship programs combine the features of on-the-job and off-the-job techniques. New workers joining the organization (and entering the craft, trade, or occupation for the first time) are provided with a balance of the theoretical and practical through both instruction and experience. Persons in sales, clerical, managerial, or professional occupations would normally not participate in apprenticeship programs. Examples of apprenticeship programs of 1 to 5 years’ duration abound in careers such as mechanics, hairdressing, drafting, plumbing, and printing.

The administrative cost of apprenticeship progress is a function of several factors, but primarily the length of the program, the proportion of classroom hours to work hours, the number of individuals enrolled, and the expected level of productivity of the trainees while they are working. The training staff includes trained workers in the occupation who supervise the trainees while they work.

This can be a strength or weakness of the program, depending upon the technical knowledge and ability of these trained workers to effectively develop subordinate workers. Little, if any, specialized training highlighted are participation, logical progression from step to step, feedback, the use of multiple sense, and adequate practice time.

b. Job Instruction:

This method (JIT) of training trainers to train workers has been used for over three decades. Appropriate for both white-and blue-collar workers, the prerequisites to JIT are evaluation of the trainees prior to instruction, thorough job analysis to determine the important components, and a detailed schedule of instruction.

There are four major steps in JIT:

(1) The trainer explains the task thoroughly.

(2) The trainer demonstrates the performance of the skill.

(3) The trainee is asked to explain the steps involved.

(4) The trainee is asked to perform the operation.

Steps 3 and 4 may be repeated as many times as necessary until the frequency of mistakes reaches a satisfactory level.

The costs of JIT can be substantial in terms of both the analysis required, and the high ratio of trainers to trainees in the early phases. Time ratio of is quite efficient, however, since the trainer can gause the progress of the trainee through direct observation. Skill development is the primary objective (e.g., safety) that can also be evaluated. In terms of learning principles, JIT utilizes feedback, correct sequencing of tasks, practice time, communication of learning objectives, and the opportunity for rein-forcement of appropriate behavior.

c. Job Rotation:

This technique involves the systematic movement of an individual from one job to another after sufficient time intervals to allow for basic competency (if not proficiency) in each succeeding job. The jobs may or may not be arranged in ascending order of difficulty of skill requirements. The purpose is to acquaint the employee with the nature of, and interrelationship between each of several jobs.

This can have a motivational effect in terms of developing the trainee’s skill in several areas (job enlargement). It also has a beneficial effect on the organization in that it produces backup employees who can be called upon when other employees are ill, are on vacation, are terminated, or when extra world and demands arise.

All three training objectives may be accomplished through job rotation. Multiple skills are developed, the trainees accumulate knowledge of several jobs, and the trainees’ attitudes are expected to improve by virtue of better understanding and variety of jobs. The primary expense factor is the relative inefficiency (low productivity, disruption of work flow, possible safety threat) of the workers as they become acclimated to the new position.

Little or no direct expenses are involved, nor is a formal trainer-required. In terms of time, some job rotation programs are almost endless; however, the more structured ones typically last 1 to 2 years, with rotation taking place at intervals of 2 weeks to 6 months.

Unless carefully constructed, job rotation programs seldom fit neatly into a format of planned progression from simple to complex. Also, the limited amount of time spent in each position virtually precludes the opportunity to practice newly, acquired skills adequately.

Objectives of each phase must be carefully delineated to each trainee and reviewed at the conclusion. Although job rotation has the capacity to individualize itself to fit personal needs, it typically disregards trainee backgrounds and preferences, and instead forces each person into each phase in lock-step fashion. On the positive side, the factors of feedback, active participation, and opportunity for reinforcement may be present.

d. Coaching:

This method involves the formal pairing of a skilled person with an unskilled trainee, and making the coach responsible for the trainee’s skill development. This has the merit of being inexpensive form a direct cost standpoint, and it effectively utilizes the years of experience that older workers may have. It is highly personalized from the standpoint of teacher-student ratio (often 1:1) and requires no special equipment or facilities. It is similar to job rotation in its multiple objectives of skill, knowledge, and attitude development.

Coaching incorporates the use of multiple senses, makes it easier to gauge the trainee’s desire to learn (because of the extensive degree of coach-trainee contact), and provides opportunity for feedback, reinforcement, involvement, and practice. Perhaps the single biggest drawback is the difficulty of discovering on developing persons with effective coaching skills who can not only demonstrate but also explain why they work as they do.